When investigating secondary emotions, researchers have no choice but to rely on self-report (i.e., asking the person how they think they feel) to assess the emotional state of the subject.

Barrett’s article has influenced me to take a more complete look at how I and others communicate emotions. Faces grab our interest, but there’s much more going on.

More information: J. Baker et al, Electrical stimulation of smiling muscles reduces visual processing load and enhances happiness perception in neutral faces, Communications Psychology (2025).